- Tylenchida
Tylenchina
Tylenchoidea
Heteroderidae
Punctoderinae
- Globodera pallida Stone, 1973
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Females: Cyst stage present.
Body globose, spheroidal, with a
short neck and no terminal cone.
Cuticle thick, with superficial, lace-like pattern; D-layer
present.
Vulva terminal, of medium length. Vulval area circumfenestrate; superficial tubercles near vulva. No anal
fenestration, but anus and vulva lying both in a "vulval
basin." Underbridge and bullae rarely present.
All eggs
retained in body (no egg-mass).
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| Note: Globodera rostochiensis
passes through a yellow stage before rupturing root cortex. Globodera
pallida remains creamy white until dying and becoming a brown cyst. |
| Males: Vermiform; body twisted into a C or S shape.
Lateral
field with four lines.
Spicules greater than 30 µm in length,
distally pointed.
No cloacal tubus.
Tail short, hemispherical. |
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Second-stage juveniles: Stylet less than
30 µm long.
Lateral
field with four lines.
Esophageal
glands filling body cavity.
Tail conical, pointed, with terminal half
hyaline.
Phasmids punctiform.
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| There are some morphological differences between G.
pallida and G. rostochiensis; e.g., in juvenile lip
region, etc. |
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Reported median body size for this species (Length mm; width micrometers; weight micrograms) - Click:
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Several pathotypes of G. rostochiensis exist: British
A, Dutch A,B,C.
For G. pallida: British B and E, Dutch D.
Pathotype classifications are based on ability of nematode to
reproduce on resistant cultivars.
Wide distribution in potato-growing regions of Europe.
Discovered in Idaho in the
US in April, 2006; extent of infestation under investigation.. Molecular
diagnosis suggests that the Idaho population is similar to that in parts of
Europe which are, in turn, similar to populations in southern Peru near Lake
Titicaca (Blok and Phillips, 2012).
Genus probably originated in Peru with Solanum tuberosum
and other Solanum spp.
| Based on information obtained from the International Potato
Center, EPPO, Globodera pallida meeting in Boise Idaho (May, 2006), and literature review, the presence of Potato Cyst Nematode (PCN), Globodera
pallida, has been reported in the following countries:
Europe: Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Czechia, Faroe Islands,
France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg,
Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, United Kingdom.
As of 2006, it is reported as eradicated in Denmark.
Asia: Cyprus, India, Pakistan, Turkey.
Africa: Algeria, Tunisia.
North America: Canada (and now Idaho).
Central America: Panama.
South America: Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador,
Falkland Islands, Peru, Venezuela.
Reports of occurrence in several other countriies are considered invalid
or unreliable as of May, 2006.
Other than the discovery in Idaho, G. pallida is not reported
from USA.
In 14 of the countries, the races of the nematode have been identified.
In 63% of the countries infested with PCN there are no data about
races.
The International Potato Center in Lima, Peru maintains a worldwide
collection of races and offers a free service for species and race
identification.
(Matos and Canto-Saenz, 1990; EPPO, 2006) Reported
Distribution 2011: Globodera pallida (Stone) Behrens.
Nematoda: Tylenchida: Heteroderidae. Hosts: Solaneceae, especially potato
(Solanum tuberosum), tomato (S. lycopersicum) and aubergine (S. melongena).
Information is given on the geographical distribution in Europe (Austria,
Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Faroe Islands,
France, Mainland France, Germany, Greece, Crete, Mainland Greece, Hungary,
Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Mainland Italy, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands,
Norway, Poland, Portugal, Madeira, Mainland Portugal, Romania, Serbia,
Slovakia, Spain, Balearic Islands, Canary Islands, Mainland Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, UK, Channel Islands, England and Wales, Northern Ireland,
Scotland, Ukraine), Asia (India, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Iran, Pakistan,
Turkey), Africa (Algeria, Tunisia), North America (Canada, Newfoundland,
USA, Idaho), Central America and Caribbean (Panama), South America
(Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Falkland Islands, Peru,
Venezuela), Oceania (New Zealand).
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Idaho Infestation (USDA 2013):
In 2006, Idaho State Department of Agriculture (ISDA) announced the
detection of pale cyst nematode (PCN). This was the first detection of the
pest in the United States. The nematode cysts were detected during a routine
survey of tare soil at an ISDA grading facility in eastern Idaho.
Subsequent 2006 surveying to determine the possible origin and
distribution of the pest in Idaho confirmed seven PCN-infested fields
totaling 911 acres, all within a one mile radius in Bingham and Bonneville
Counties, Idaho.
The PCN-infested fields and an area surrounding the fields were placed
under a Federal Domestic Quarantine Order and parallel State Rule in August
2006, establishing restrictions on movement of certain regulated articles
from Idaho in order to prevent the spread of PCN.
As a result of continued intensive soil sampling since 2007, an
additional twelve PCN-infested fields have been found in Bingham and
Bonneville Counties, Idaho. All 19 known infested fields
lay within a 5-mile radius. The fields associated with them through shared
tenancy, farming practices, equipment, and/or shared borders have been
extensively surveyed and regulated.
Since program inception, approximately 50,400 acres have been regulated
due to their infestation or association with an infested field.
Noninfested fields have been eligible for federal deregulation following
a sequence of soil surveys with no PCN detections.
To date, 37,680 acres have been released from federal regulation;
however, some of that acreage was re-regulated due to a new association(s)
with an infested field(s).
Currently, 12,744 acres of farmland are regulated, 2,015 acres of which
are infested fields.
Eradication treatments in PCN-infested fields have been ongoing since the
spring of 2007. Eradication treatments have included methyl bromide
fumigation, Telone II fumigation, and planting of biofumigant crops.
Soil testing in infested fields indicates the average viability of eggs
within the PCN cysts has declined by more than 99% since eradication
treatments began.
To date, eight infested fields have triggered the bioassay stage of
evaluating eradication progress when viable eggs were no longer detected in
cysts collected from those fields. One of these fields has also successfully
completed the bioassay process, enabling it to return to potato production
with certain regulatory and survey requirements remaining in place.
Source: USDA, 2013
A-rated pest
in California Nematode Pest Rating System.
Discovery of G. pallida in Idaho in 2006 caused Japan to
ban all fresh US potato imports. Canada, Korea and Mexico banned all fresh potato imports from Idaho, but
Mexico and Canada later resumed trade with Idaho farmers. As of 2010,
the Korean and Japanese markets remain closed to Idaho potatoes but negotiations
are actively underway to re-gain market access.
On April 19, 2006, officials of USDA’s Animal and Plant Health Inspection
Service (APHIS) and the Idaho State Department of Agriculture (ISDA)
announced the detection of PCN, a major pest of potato crops. This was the
first detection of the pest in the United States. The nematode cysts were
detected during a routine survey of tare soil at an ISDA grading facility in
eastern Idaho. Subsequent 2006 surveying to determine the possible origin
and distribution of the pest in Idaho confirmed seven PCN-infested fields
totaling 911 acres, all within a one mile radius in Bingham and Bonneville
Counties, Idaho. The PCN-infested fields and an area surrounding the fields
were placed under a Federal Domestic Quarantine Order and parallel State
Rule in August 2006, establishing restrictions on movement of certain
regulated articles from Idaho in order to prevent the spread of PCN.
As a result of continued intensive soil sampling since 2007, an
additional twelve PCN-infested fields have been found in Bingham and
Bonneville Counties, Idaho. All 19 known infested fields
lay within a 5-mile radius. The fields associated with them through shared
tenancy, farming practices, equipment, and/or shared borders have been
extensively surveyed and regulated.
Since program inception, approximately 50,400 acres have been regulated
due to their infestation or association with an infested field. Noninfested
fields have been eligible for federal deregulation following a sequence of
soil surveys with no PCN detections. To date, 37,680 acres have been
released from federal regulation; however, some of that acreage was
re-regulated due to a new association(s) with an infested field(s).
Currently, 12,744 acres of farmland are regulated, 2,015 acres of which
are infested fields.
Eradication treatments of PCN-infested fields have been ongoing since the
spring of 2007. Eradication treatments have included methyl bromide
fumigation, Telone II fumigation, and biofumigant plantings. Testing of the
top 3 inches of soil in infested fields indicate the average viability of
eggs within the PCN cysts have declined by more than 90% since eradication
treatments began (USDA-APHIS, 2010, 2013).
In the United Kingdom, Globodera pallida is progressively competitively replacing G.
rostochiensis in Britain (Trudgill et al., 2003) and in Ireland (Devine and
Jones, 2003). The potato cyst nematodes (PCN) Globodera rostochiensis and G.
pallida (family Heteroderidae) are major pests of potato causing annual
loses of 9% in global production (Turner & Subbotin, 2013). It is thought
that PCN were introduced into Europe in the middle of the 19th century when
wild potato collections were brought from several sites in South America to
be used as breeding material against late blight, Phytophthora infestans
(Evans et al., 1975; Plantard et al., 2008)
Feeding site establishment and development
typical of genus.
Nurse cell system is a multinucleate syncytium.
Very narrow range: potato, tomato, and some weeds.
There are several pathotypes of G. pallida: British B
and E, Dutch D.
Pathotype classifications are based on ability of nematode to
reproduce on resistant cultivars.
Ecophysiological Parameters:
Egg hatch is stimulated by host root diffusate (60-80%) - only
about 5% hatch in water. Some eggs do not hatch until subsequent
years. Hatch is induced primarily by some (relatively few) plants in the
Solanum genus, particularly those in the Solanum nigrum species complex
(Scholte, 2000; Dandurand, pers. com.)..
J2 moves into feeder roots, establishes feeding site, and undergoes 3
more molts.
Adult males do not feed. Sex is determined by food supply -
males develop in adverse conditions and heavy infestations.
Nematodes reproduce sexually; males are attracted to females
by a pheromone sex attractant. Nematodes may mate several times.
Females form cysts containing 200 to 600 eggs, which can stay dormant for up
to 30 years while the eggs inside remain viable.
Annual population decline in the absence of a host varies from
18% in cold soils (Scotland) to 50% in warm soils, with an
average decline rate about 30% - so population decline follows
this pattern: 100-70-50-35-23-etc.
Globodera pallida appears to be more responsive to potato root
diffusate than G. rostochiensis. Consequently, where both species
are present, G. pallida reproduces to a greater extent and predominates
population levels (Devine and Jones, 2003). The problem is exacerbated when
potatoes resistant only to G. rostochiensis are grown. Available
cultivars have only partial resistance to G. pallida and do not prevent
its increase. Globodera pallida is progressively replacing G.
rostochiensis in Britain (Trudgill et al., 2003).
Potato varieties resistant to G. rostochiensis have been
available since the 1970s and the resistance from Solanum tuberosum
spp. andigena CPC1673 (H1) has been a durable and effective way of
controlling G. rostochiensis in the UK. However, the extensive use
of varieties with this resistance has resulted in selection in favor of
G. pallida, which is now the most prevalent species (Varypatakis et
al., 2019).
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The nematodes infest potato roots but do not appear to infest tubers (USDA,
2012).
In Scotland, 1 ton/acre is lost for every 20 eggs/g soil.
Supply of water and nutrients to upper plant is diminished.
Large infestations of G. pallida cause wilting, stunted growth,
poor root development, and early plant death. Tuber size is reduced and
potato yields may be reduced by 80%.
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The potato cyst nematodes, G. rostochiensis and G. pallida
cause annual losses of 9% in global production of potato (Turner & Subbotin,
2013)
Crop Sequence:
Continuous cropping of cultivars resistant to G.
rostochiensis selects for pathotypes of G. pallida.
Some species of Solanum that are resistant (or perheps defined as
non-hosts) to G. pallida may release hatching factors that
stimulate hatching of G. pallida eggs. Solanum species
that stinulate hatching but are not susceptible to infection may be used as
trap crops if they are viable in the environment of the infestation. The
expectation is that the juveniles are more physiologically active than the
eggs and either expend their nutritional reserves or perhaps are
attacked by predaceous organisms.
Hickman and Dandurand (2023) evaluated, in controlled environments,
the trap crop potential of several Solanum species that are
resistant or non-hosts to G. pallida by determining their
stimulatory effect on egg hatch. Species tested were: Solanum
aethiopicum, S. macrocarpon, S. quitoense, S. retroflexum, and S.
douglasii. The study was aimed at controlling the population of G.
pallida in Idaho, USA; some of the species were adapted to tropical
environments and not suitable for field conditions in Idaho. The most
promising trap crop candidates with a hatching stimulatory effect comparable
to potato were S. quitoense and S. retroflexum.
Scolte (2000) screened 90 accessions of non-tuberous Solanaceae for the
potential as hatching stimulates and as trap crops (i.e. non-hosts to the
nematode). There were several potential candidates but the greatest hatching
stimulus effect was from plants in the Solanum nigrum species
complex. Successful trap crops must also be viable in the prevailing
climatic conditions of the application site.
Nematicides:
Widely used.
Resistance:
Seeds of three varieties segregating for resistance to two pathotypes of Globodera
rostochiensis (Ro1 and Ro2) and two pathotypes of G. pallida (Pa2 and
Pa3) have been released by Cornell University and USDA/ARS. The resistance is
suitable for North American production. It was developed in anticipation
that pathotypes of G. pallida, which are prevalent in many other potato
production areas of the world, are ever introduced into North America.
The combined resistance in this germplasm is from S. tuberosum ssp andigena
and S. vernei. Brodie et al (2000).
Cultivars available in Britain only have partial resistance to G. pallida
(Trudgill et al., 2003).
Ernst and colleagues characterized the Hero gene of tomato, a
wide-spectrum nematode resistance gene that confers a high level (95%) of
resistance against all pathotypes of G. rostochiensis and > 80% resistance
to G. pallida.. The Hero gene was introgressed into tomato
cultivar LA1792 from the wild species, Solanum pimpinellifolium
LA121 by Ellis and Maxon-Smith (1971). The gene has been considered to have
potential as a valuable source of resistance against potato cyst nematodes
(Ernst et al., 2002).
Reducing Spread:
As of September 2006, the U.S. Department of
Agriculture has issued a potato advisory for a specific area of Southeast Idaho.
"People are asked to take precautions when gleaning potatoes missed by the
harvester. Agriculture departments have been testing fields in the regulated
area. While people are not discouraged from picking potatoes, they should wash
off their shoes in between fields to prevent the spread. For more information
regarding the regulated area, contact the Potato Cyst Nematode Project Office at
208-351-9857. "
An extensive field sampling program was initiated in Idaho. As of October
2006, seven
infested fields had been identified in Idaho. The fields are in close
proximity to each other.
By the end of 2006,
29,000 soil samples had been tested in a Twin Falls
laboratory and at the University of Idaho Nematology Laboratory in Parma. Within
the regulated area, 4,000 acres of farm land had been tested.
The nematode is easily spread by the transport of cysts in soil. This may
occur with the movement of soil on farming, construction, and other
equipment; infested soil adhering to seed potatoes and other crops; or by
transport in river, flood or irrigation water.
Idaho Department of Agriculture
applies the following rules regarding Globodera
pallida (2008):
INTRASTATE MOVEMENT.
No regulated articles may move within the
State of Idaho without complying with the federal regulations, as incorporated
by reference in Section 004.01 in this rule. (11-1-07)T
RESTRICTIONS.
01. Movement From a
Non-Quarantined Area.
Movement of regulated articles from a non-quarantined area is subject to
inspection by an inspector. Permits and certifications are not required.
(11-1-07)T
02. Movement From a
Quarantined Area. Movement of regulated articles
from a quarantined area is subject to the provision of Section 02.06.10.015 of
this rule. (11-1-07)T
03. Other Restrictions.
No potatoes, tomatoes, eggplants or any other known host crops may be planted in
the infested fields. Soil must not be moved from the infested fields. Any
equipment leaving the infested fields must be sanitized and certified using USDA
APHIS approved protocols. (11-1-07)T
04. Seed Potatoes.
Seed potatoes may not be grown in a quarantined area. (11-1-07)T
CONDITIONS FOR INTRASTATE OR INTERSTATE
MOVEMENT OF REGULATED ARTICLES.
Regulated articles may only be moved
intrastate or interstate from a quarantined area by a person under a compliance
agreement if accompanied by a certificate or limited permit issued by an
inspector in accordance with 7 CFR Part 301 Sections 301.86-4 and 5. (11-1-07)T
INSPECTION, SAMPLING AND
TESTING.
In order to accomplish the
purposes of this rule, an inspector may enter upon and inspect any public or
private premises, lands, means of conveyance, or article of any person within
this state, for the purpose of inspecting, surveying, sampling, testing,
treating, controlling or destroying any soil, plant or plant material thought to
or found to contain or be infested with Potato Cyst Nematode. (11-1-07)T
PENALTIES. Any
person violating any of the provisions of these rules will be subject to the
penalty provisions of Title 22, Chapter 20, Idaho Code. (11-1-07)T
Additional Information and Resources
Australasian Plant Pathology Society Factsheets on Plant-parasitic Nematodes
(Prepared by Dr. Graham R. Stirling)
(Use your Return Key or click the Index Tab to return to this Nemaplex page)
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PSN 053. Biosecurity measures to reduce the spread of Potato cyst
nematode in Australia
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Luc, Maggenti & Fortuner, Rev. Nematol.
11(2):159-176 (1988)
-
H. Ferris
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Brodie, B. B.; Scurrah, Maria; Plaisted, R. L.. 2000. Release of
germplasm resistant to multiple races of potato cyst nematodes. American Journal
of Potato Research 77: 207-209.
-
Devine, K.J. and
Jones, P.W. 2003. Comparison of the production and mobility of the potato cyst
nematodes, Globodera rostochiensis and G. pallida hatching
factors within a field planted with a host potato crop. Nematology
5: 219-225.
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Ellis, P.R. and
Maxon-Smith, J.W. (1971) Inheritance of resistance to potato
cyst-eelworm (Heterodera rostochiensis Woll.) in the genus Lycopersicon.
Euphytica 20, 93-101.
-
Ernst, K., Kumar, A.,
Kriseleit, D., Kloos, D-U, Phillips, M.S., Ganal, M.W. 2002. The
broad-spectrum potato cyst nematode resistance gene (Hero) from tomato
is the only member of a large gene family of NBS-LRR genes with an
unusual amino acid repeat in the LRR region. The Plant Journal
31:127-136.
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Hickman, P.,
Dandurand, L-M. 2023. Evaluation of Solanaceous Species as Nonhost Trap
Crops for Globodera pallida. J. Nemtology 55: e2023-1 | DOI:
10.2478/jofnem-2023-0036
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Matos, A. and M. Canto-Saenz. 1990?? Worldwide distribution of the
potato cyst nematode
Globodera spp. International Potato Center.
P.O. Box 5969. Lima - Peru. (Published in Nematropica)
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Idaho Administrative Code, IDAPA 02.06.10 -
Rules Governing the Department of Agriculture Potato Cyst Nematode (Globodera
pallida) IAC 2008 .
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Scholte, K. 2000. Screening of non-tuber bearing
Solanaceae for resistance to and induction of juvenile hatch of potato
cyst nematodes and their potential for trap cropping. Annals of Applied
Biology 136:239-246.
-
Stone, A.R. 1973a. "Heterodera pallida
n. sp. (Nematoda:
Heteroderidae), a second species of potato cyst nematode." Nematologica.
18:591-606.
-
Stone, A.R. 1973b. "Heterodera pallida."
CommonwealthInstitute of Helminthology Descriptions of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes, Set 2,
No. 17.
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Stone, A.R. 1973c. "Heterodera
rostochiensis." CommonwealthInstitute of Helminthology Descriptions of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes, Set 2,
Nos. 16.
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Trudgill, D.L., M.J. Elliott, K. Evans and M.S. Phillips. 2003. The white
potato cyst nematode (Globodera pallida) - a critical analysis of the
threat in Britain. Annals of Applied Biology
143:73-80.
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USDA-APHIS 2010.
Pale Cyst Nematode (Globodera pallida) Eradication Program-
Idaho Falls, Idaho February 2010 Report
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Blok, V.C. & Phillips M.S. 2010. Biological
characteristion of Globodera pallida from Idaho. Nematology
14:817-826.
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USDA-APHIA 2013. Program
Update: Pale Cyst Nematode (Globodera pallida) Eradication Program -
Idaho Falls, Idaho. 2013 1st Quarter Report
-
Varypatakis. K., Jones. J.T., Blok, V.C. 2019.
Susceptibility of potato varieties to populations of Globodera pallida
selected for increased virulence. Nematology 21:995-998.
Copyright © 1999 by Howard Ferris.
Revised:
December 05, 2023.