Rev 06/02/2026
Xiphinema bricolense is a dagger nematode with characteristic morphology of the genus:
long slender body and a long, spear-like feeding apparatus (odontostyle) which does not have stylet knobs but rather an extension (odontophore) with basal flanges to which the stylet protractor muscles are attached. There is a guiding ring that maintains the position of the long odontostyle.
Most Xiphinema species can be separated into two large groups: the X. americanum-group with approximately 55 species and the non-X. americanum-group with approximately 150 species. Xiphinema bricolense is in the X. americanum group, along with X. americanum and X. californicum (Loof and Luc, 1990; Lamberti et al., 2000; Gutiérrez-Gutiérrez et al., 2012; Archidona-Yuste et al., 2016; Castillo, 2026).
Xiphinema bricolense was described from an apple orchard in Vernon, British Columbia, Canada (Ebsary et al., 1989). Other detections of X. bricolense have mainly been from vineyards (Graham et al., 1988). Occasionally the nematode has been reported from peach and apple orchards in the Okanagan and Similkameen valleys (Vrain and Yorston, 1987) in British Columbia (Martin, 2026)..
California Department of Food and Agriculture Nematologist R. T. Robbins reportedly identified X. bricolense, based on morphological characteristics, from Juncus in Marin County California between 1971 and 1978 (Cho and Robbins, 1991). However, morphological identification of species within this genus is difficult and molecular diagnostics are more reliable. Consequently, the record from Cho and Robbins would not be considered to meet today’s standard. Xiphinema bricolense has not been reported in California since the 1970s.
Because it is difficult to distinguish between Xiphinema species based on morphology, some proportion of the historical detections of X. americanum in California could be X. bricolense. Althoogh it has historically been considered a C-rated pest in the California Nematode Pest Rating System, based on the potential to cause damage to importent crops in California, the current recommendation is Xiphinema bricolense should be considered A-rated in California (Martin, 2026).
Feeds at root tips causing swelling, stunting, and destruction of tips.
Malus domestica (apple), Prunus persica (peach), and Vitis vinifera (grapevine) (Martin, 2026)
Dagger nematodes have six life stages, and the life cycle is similar to that of other ectoparasitic, vermiform nematodes. Parthenogenesis, a form of reproduction that does not require males, is common in many species.
Females lay eggs in the soil. Juveniles hatch from eggs, locate a feeding site at a plant root, commence feeding and and molt four times, increasing in size with each molt until they become adults. All stages, except eggs, attack and feed on the roots of the host plants.
Ecophysiological Parameters:
Dagger nematodes are migratory ectoparasites of plant roots. They are primarily problematic in biennial and permanent crops due to their relatively long life cycle and, in some cases, susceptibility to damage dure to soil tillage.
Nematodes of the genus Xiphinema occur worldwide; some can vector viruses, which are very damaging to important orchards, small fruit, and vine crops (Decraemer and Robbins, 2007; Martin, 2026). There are over 250 species within the genus Xiphinema,
While feeding, the nematode remains outside the root but inserts its long odontostyle deep inside, usually at the root tip. The stylet punctures cell walls and damages meristematic tissues whicm mar result in swelling or galling of root tips.. During feeding, enzymes such as cellulases, pectinases, hemicellulases, and chitinases are secreted to digest plant cell contents (Heve et al., 2018).
Nematicides, crop rotation and resitant rootstocks (whaen available( are useful tools for avoiding or reducing damage by daggar nematodes.
Avoiding spread to uninfected sites is important. The movement of infected rooted plants and soil (including nursery stock), cultural practices that result in the movement of infected soil to clean, non-infected sites, and contaminated irrigation water can all transmit dagger nematodes to new areas (Chitambar et al., 2018).
Host Plant Resistance, Non-hosts and Crop Rotation alternatives:
Archidona-Yuste, A., Navas-Cortes, J.A., Cantalapiedra-Navarrete, C., Palomares-Rius, J.E. and Castillo, P. 2016. Cryptic diversity and species delimitation in the Xiphinema americanum-group complex (Nematoda: Longidoridae) as inferred from morphometrics and molecular markers. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 176, 231-265
Castillo, P. 2026. Xiphinema americanum (dagger nematode) CABI Compendium 57023 https://doi.org/10.1079/cabicompendium.57023
Chitambar, J. J., Westerdahl, B. B., and Subbotin, S. A. 2018. Plant Parasitic Nematodes in California Agriculture. In Subbotin, S., Chitambar J., (eds) Plant Parasitic Nematodes in Sustainable Agriculture of North America. Sustainability in Plant and Crop Protection. Springer
Cho, M.R. and Robbins, R.T., 1991. Morphological variation among 23 Xiphinema americanum populations. Journal of Nematology, 23:134.
Decraemer, W. and Robbins, R.T. 2007. The who, what, and where of Longidoridae and Trichodoridae. Journal of Nematology 39, 295-297
Ebsary, B.A., Vrain, T.C., and Graham, M.B. 1989. Two new species of Xiphinema (Nematoda: Longidoridae) from British Columbia vineyards. Canadian Journal of Zoology 67: 801-804.
Graham, M. B., Ebsary, B.A., Vrain, T.C., and Webster, J.M. 1988. Distribution of Xiphinema bricolensis and X. pacificum in vineyards of the Okanagan and Similkameen Valleys, British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology 10: 259-262.
Gutiérrez-Gutiérrez, C., Cantalapiedra-Navarrete, C., Decraemer, W., Vovlas, N., Prior, T., Palomares-Rius, J.E. and Castillo, P. 2012. Phylogeny, diversity, and species delimitation in some species of the Xiphinema americanum-group complex (Nematoda: Longidoridae), as inferred from nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequences and morphology. European Journal of Plant Pathology 134: 561-597.
Heve, W. K., Crow, W. T., and Mengistu, T. 2018. Dagger Nematodes. University of Florida IFAS https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/nematode/dagger_nematode.htm Accessed 10/24/2024
Martin, H.J. 2026 California Pest Rating Proposal for Xiphinema bricolense Dalmasso 1969 Dagger nematode, California Department of Food and Agriculture, Sacramento, California.
Vrain, T.C. and Yorston, J.M. 1987. Plant-parasitic nematodes in orchards of the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia. Plant Disease 71: 85-87.